Learning
The standard
The rationale
Annotated bibliography
The standard
Staff development that improves the learning of all students applies knowledge about human learning and change.
The rationale
No matter the age at which it occurs, human learning is based on a common set of principles. While adults have more life experience to draw on than younger learners and are often clearer about what they want to learn and why it is important, the means by which the learning occurs is remarkably similar. Consequently, it is important that the learning methods used in professional development mirror as closely as possible the methods teachers are expected to use with their students.
It is essential that staff development assist educators in moving beyond comprehension of the surface features of a new idea or innovation to a fuller and more complete understanding of its purposes, critical attributes, meaning, and connection to other approaches. To improve student achievement, adult learning under most circumstances must promote deep understanding of a topic and provide many opportunities for teachers and administrators to practice new skills with feedback on their performance until those skills become automatic and habitual. Such deeper understanding typically requires a number of opportunities to interact with the idea or procedure through active learning processes that promote reflection such as discussion and dialogue, writing, demonstrations, practice with feedback, and group problem solving.
Because people have different learning styles and strengths, professional development must include opportunities to see, hear, and do various actions in relation to the content. It is also important that educators are able to learn alone and with others and, whenever possible, have choices among learning activities.
Another important dimension of adult engagement in change processes is the feelings that such change often evokes in individuals. Even under the best of circumstances, pressure for change, no matter what its source, may produce feelings of anxiety, fear, and anger. Such feelings are most effectively addressed through skillful listening and problem solving within a respectful and trusting school culture. It is helpful for educational leaders to appreciate that, to some degree, such feelings are natural and an inevitable part of the change process. Such appreciation is aided when leaders have a deep understanding of the change literature, particularly the Concerns-Based Adoption Model, and are able to apply its insights when planning and implementing new practices in schools.
A third dimension of change is the life stage of individuals engaged in the change process. While recognition of life stage differences would not alter expectations for performance, it may affect an individual's availability and interest in additional work responsibilities during different phases of his or her life. Recognition of life stage differences may also help staff development leaders in tapping educators' strengths and talents, such as asking skillful veteran teachers to serve as mentors or coaches for their peers.
Electronic forms of learning may prove particularly helpful in providing alternatives that respond to differences in learning styles and availability due to life stage issues. Staff development content may be accessed via the Internet or other forms of distance technology that will enable learning throughout the day in various settings using media that appeals to different learning preferences.
Annotated bibliography
NOTE: When resources in this list are available on the web, a link is provided. Many of these publications are available through the NSDC Bookstore.
Brooks, J. & Brooks, M. (1993). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Order from ASCD's web site: http://www.ascd.org
This book provides a rationale for the development of classrooms based on constructivist learning. The authors describe five guiding principles for teaching derived from constructivism, (1) posing problems of emerging relevance to learners, (2) structuring learning around "big ideas" or primary concepts, (3) seeking and valuing students' points of view, (4) adapting curriculum to address students' suppositions, and (5) assessing student learning in the context of the teaching. The authors provide research support for and classroom examples of each principle.
Fessler, R. (1995). Dynamics of teacher career stages. In T. Guskey & M. Huberman (Eds.), Professional development in education: New paradigms and practices, New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Order from Teachers College Press's hotline: 800-575-6566
In this chapter, the author presents the Teacher Career Cycle Model as a framework for analyzing and understanding the stages teachers' experience in their careers. Previous work that influenced model development is reviewed, the process used for model building is presented, model components are described, and implications for teacher growth and development and research are considered.
Guskey, T. (1986). Staff development and the process of teacher change. Educational Researcher, 15(5), 5-12.
Order from AERA by emailing subscriptions@aera.net
The "Model of Teacher Change" proposes that change occurs in the following order: that change occurs in the following order: (1) professional development, (2) change in classroom practices, (3) change in student learning, (4) change in teachers' attitudes and beliefs. The model says that significant changes in teachers' attitudes and beliefs occur primarily after they gain evidence of improvements in student learning. These improvements typically result from changes teachers have made in their classroom practices. Teachers believe it works because they have seen it work, and that experience shapes their attitudes and beliefs. Substantial evidence in support of this model is provided along with specific implications for staff development planning, implementation, and evaluation.
Hall, G. & Hord, S. (1987). Change in schools: Facilitating the process. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Order from SUNY's web site: http://www.sunypress.edu
This text discusses the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM). Three diagnostic dimensions are described: stages of concern about the innovation, levels of use of the innovation, and innovation configuration. The first dimension addresses the thoughts and feelings of users. The second dimension is a description of the behaviors as they familiarize themselves with and skillfully use the innovation. The third diagnostic dimension, innovation configuration, focuses on the anticipated change.
Hall, G. & Hord, S. (2001). Implementing change: Patterns, principles, and potholes. Boston. MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Order from Allyn & Bacon's web site: http://www.ablongman.com
This text that focuses on the Concerns-Based Adoption Model contains four primary sections: the context for implementing change, tools and techniques for change facilitators (includes Stages of Concern, Levels of Use, Innovation Configurations), the imperative for leadership in change, and constructing and understanding the realities of change (includes a focus on organizational culture, climate, and context).
Huberman, M. (1995). Professional careers and professional development. In T. Guskey & M. Huberman (Eds.), Professional development in education: New paradigms and practices (193-224). New York. NY: Teachers College Press.
Order from Teachers College Press's hotline: 800-575-6566
Michael Huberman asserts that teachers have different aims and different dilemmas at various moments in their professional lives, and that their desires to reach out for more information, knowledge, expertise, and technical competence will vary accordingly. His assumption is that while there will be commonalties among teachers in the sequencing of their professional lives, no one particular form of professional development may be appropriate. He reviews some of the recent paradigms of teachers' life-span development and extracts from each some of the guideposts around which professional development activities could be designed. He then devises a more generic model of professional collaboration.
Knowles, M. (1978). The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.
Order from amazon.com or other online bookstores
Malcolm Knowles, the father of andragogy, points out the need for work on a theory of how adults learn: "We know more about how animals learn (especially rodents and pigeons) than about how children learn; and we know much more about how children learn than about how adults learn."
Krupp, J. (1993). Teaching career evolution in early adulthood. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 30(4), 100-105.
To check on availability, please call 1-800-284-3167
Judy-Arin Krupp explores teachers' careers during the ages 22-27, 28-33, and 34-39, and the challenges faced by teachers in these age brackets. She argues that leaders must be sensitive to the personal concerns of their teachers in order to attain higher levels of productivity.
Levine, S. (1985). Translating adult development research into staff development practices. Journal of Staff Development, 6(1), 6-17.
Request from NSDC office: 513-523-6029 nsdcoffice@aol.com
Sarah Levine highlights research on adult development and suggests appropriate staff development strategies. She argues that reform efforts must devote more time and energy to the adults who work in schools.
U.S. Department of Education Professional Development Team. (1994). Building bridges: The mission and principles of professional development. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
Read at http://www.ed.gov/G2K/bridge.html
The Professional Development Team used available research to create a set of principles for staff development. According to their study, high quality professional development: (1) focuses on teachers as central to student learning; (2) focuses on individual, collegial, and organizational improvement; (3) respects and nurtures the intellectual and leadership capacity of individuals within the school community; (4) reflects best available research and practice in teaching, learning, and leadership; (5) enables teachers to develop further expertise in subject content, teaching strategies, and technology; (6) promotes continuous inquiry and improvement; (7) involves collaborative planning; (8) requires substantial time and other resources; (9) is driven by a coherent long-term plan; and (10) is assessed by its impact on teacher effectiveness and student learning.
What matters most: Teaching for America's future. (1996). New York, NY: National Commission on Teaching & America's Future.
Download in PDF form at http://www.tc.columbia.edu/~teachcomm/WhatMattersMost.pdf
This report offers one of the most important strategies for achieving America's educational goals: a blueprint for recruiting, preparing, and supporting excellent teachers in all of America's schools. The Commission offers five major recommendations for surmounting some of the barriers to achieving America's education goals: (1) get serious about standards, for both students and teachers; (2) reinvent teacher preparation and professional development; (3) fix teacher recruitment and put qualified teachers in every classroom; (4) encourage and reward teacher knowledge and skill; and (5) create schools that are organized for student and teacher success.
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