Data-driven

The standard
The rationale
Annotated bibliography

The standard

The rationale

Helpful data are typically drawn from other sources, including norm-referenced and criterionreferenced tests, grade retention, high school completion, reports of disciplinary actions, school vandalism costs, enrollment in advanced courses, performance tasks, and participation in post-secondary education. Data on individual tests can be analyzed to learn how much students advanced in one year as well as particular strengths and weaknesses associated with the focus of the test. These data are typically disaggregated to reveal differences in learning among subgroups of students. The most common forms of disaggregation include gender, socioeconomic status, native language, and race.

A second use of data is in the design and evaluation of staff development efforts, both for formative and summative purposes. Early in a staff development effort, educational leaders must decide what adults will learn and be able to do and which types of evidence will be accepted as indicators of success. They also determine ways to gather that evidence throughout the change process to help make midcourse corrections to strengthen the work of leaders and providers. Data can also indicate to policy makers and funders the impact of staff development on teacher practice and student learning.

A third use of data occurs at the classroom level as teachers gather evidence of improvements in student learning to determine the effects of their professional learning on their own students. Teacher-made tests, assignments, portfolios, and other evidence of student learning are used by teachers to assess whether staff development is having desired effects in their classrooms. Because improvements in student learning are a powerful motivator for teachers, evidence of such improvements as a result of staff development experiences helps sustain teacher momentum during the inevitable frustrations and setbacks that accompany complex change efforts. Another benefit of data analysis, particularly the examination of student work, is that the study of such evidence is itself a potent means of staff development. Teachers who use one of several group processes available for the study of student work report that the ensuing discussions of the assignment, the link between the work and content standards, their expectations for student learning, and the use of scoring rubrics improve their teaching and student learning.

If data are to provide meaningful guidance in the process of continuous improvement, teachers and administrators require professional development regarding data analysis, designing assessment instruments, implementing various forms of assessment, and understanding which assessment to use to provide the desired information. Because the preservice preparation of teachers and administrators in assessment and data analysis has been weak or nonexistent, educators must have generous opportunities to acquire knowledge and skills related to formative classroom assessment, data collection, data analysis, and data-driven planning and evaluation.

Annotated bibliography

Bernhardt, V. (1998). Data analysis for comprehensive schoolwide improvement. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education, Inc.
Order the NSDC Bookstore.

Victoria Bernhardt analyzes barriers schools face data analysis, describing how and why to gather data. She defines and describes the importance of four major measures of data (demographics, perceptions, student learning, and school processes), exploring the interactions of these measures that allow schools to determine what they need to do to prevent failures and to increase student learning. Also she describes how to communicate the results of comprehensive data analyses to the community and how to use the results of data analyses for schoolwide improvement.

Collins, D. (1997). Achieving your vision of professional development. Tallahassee, FL: The Regional Educational Laboratory at SERVE.
Download in PDF form at http://www.serve.org/publications/htayv.htm.

This "how-to" resource guide offers many tips to help at each stage of building an effective professional development system. The guide reports the Southwest Educational Development Laboratory's six strategies for implementation: developing a vision, creating a context for change, planning, investing resources, providing continual assistance, and assessing and monitoring progress. It also includes summaries of the 1997-98 winners of the U.S. Department of Education's National Awards Program for Model Professional Development and five examples of model schools.

Covey, S. (1989). The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Order from Simon & Schuster's web site: http://www.simonsays.com

In this national bestseller, Stephen Covey outlines seven habits of highly effective people, some of which are also characteristic of effective professional development. Habit 2, "begin with the end in mind," is especially relevant to the understanding that all professional development must be designed for and geared toward the specific end of improved student learning outcomes. Proceeding backward from the end of improved student learning, teachers must be provided with the knowledge and skills necessary to achieve this goal, and staff developers must design and use the appropriate strategies for helping teachers acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to improve student learning.

Cushman, K. (1996). Looking collaboratively at student work: An essential toolkit. Horace, 13(2), 1-12.
Read at http://www.essentialschools.org/cs/resources/view/ces_res/57

The author describes a strategy used by teachers in Essential Schools. The teachers come together to examine student work and use specific protocols to focus their discussion on the qualities of the work and what they can learn from it about their students and themselves. Cushman describes a "tuning protocol" that creates a ritual of presentation and response and provides structure for conversations among teachers. Cushman reports that teachers say the examination of student work has had far-reaching impact on their practices.

DuFour, R. & Eaker, R. (1998). Professional learning communities at work: Best practices for enhancing student achievement. Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service and Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Order from the NSDC Bookstore.

Rick DuFour and Robert Eaker offer recommendations for those who seek to transform their schools into professional learning communities as characterized by mutual collaboration, emotional support, personal growth, and a synergy of efforts. References to and brief summaries of directions for curriculum, teacher preparation, school leadership, professional development, school-parent partnerships, and assessment practices are included, along with sample vision statements.

Fink, E. & Resnick, L. (2001). Developing principals as instructional leaders. Phi Delta Kappan, 82(8), 598-606.
Order through Phi Delta Kappa. Contact Terri Hampton at (800)766-1156

The authors describe how New York City's District 2 improved student achievement by combining a strong sense of accountability with a culture of learning among principals. Principals in District 2 are responsible for creating cultures of learning in their schools as the district has devolved decision-making authority and resources to schools. The authors tell how a community of principals was formed built on strong interpersonal relationships and a sustained focus on teaching and learning. Principal learning is supported through various means: monthly principals' conferences, principals' study groups, literacy support groups, new principals' support groups, intervisitation, buddying, and individualized coaching.

Fullan, M., (2001). The new meaning of educational change, The third edition. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Order from the Teachers College Press hotline: (800)575-6566

Michael Fullan reviews the literature of planned educational change over the last 30 years to provide some clear insights about the do's and don'ts of bringing about change in elementary and secondary schools. Fullan distills from his experience the most powerful lessons about how participants can cope with and influence educational change. He compiles the best theory and practice in order to explain why change processes work as they do and to identify what would have to be done to improve them.

Guskey, T. (2000). Evaluating professional development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press Inc.
Order from the NSDC Bookstore.

In this book, Guskey helps readers to effectively assess professional development, understand the dynamic nature of professional development, and identify what contributes to improved student learning. The evaluation processes and tools recommended by Guskey make it clear that if staff development is to improve student learning, many levels of change are required, each with its own particular evaluation challenges.

Hord, S. (1992). Facilitative leadership: The imperative for change. Austin, TX: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory.
Read at http://www.sedl.org/change/facilitate/welcome.html

The text contains research that supports six categories of actions that are used by effective leaders to facilitate change. These include developing a culture of readiness for change, promoting the vision, providing the necessary resources, ensuring the availability of professional development, maintaining checks on progress, and providing the ongoing assistance necessary for change to occur smoothly.

Hord, S. (1994). Staff development and change process: Cut from the same cloth. Issues…about Change, 4(2). Austin, TX: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory.
Read at http://www.sedl.org/change/issues/issues42.html

In this paper, Shirley Hord describes the Joyce and Showers staff development model and relates it to a change model derived from school improvement studies. Noting the fit of the two models, Hord suggests successful strategies for a comprehensive approach to changing teachers' practices which include developing and articulating a vision, planning and providing resources, investing in training, monitoring progress, providing continuous assistance, and creating a context conducive to change.

Johnson, R. (2002). Using data to close the achievement gap: How to measure equity in our schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Order from Sage Publication's web site http://www.sagepub.com/book.aspx?pid=7419

Ruth Johnson identifies six roles for data: (1) improving the quality of criteria used in problem solving and decision making; (2) describing institutional processes, practices, and progress in schools and districts; (3) examining institutional belief systems underlying assumptions and behaviors; (4) mobilizing the school community for action; (5) monitoring implementation of changes; and (6) accountability.

Joyce, B. & Calhoun, E. (1996). Learning experiences in school renewal: An exploration of five successful programs. Eugene, OR: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management.
Order from ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management's web site: http://www.eric.uoregon.edu

The authors present five case studies of programs used to build improved learning communities. Each of the five programs presented focuses on unique components of school renewal. Technical and social aspects of school renewal are examined, and the goal of building a learning community for the whole school remains a central theme throughout. The programs include the use of staff development as a tool for school improvement, the effective use of governance structures, the use of an initiative to create a culture of readers and writers, the use of staff development to increase the capacity of inner city schools, and the use of action research as a tool for school improvement.

Kaufman, M. (1997). A professional development stance for equity. SSI Perspectives, 2(3), 4-5.
Read at http://www.terc.edu/handsonIssues/f96/equity.html

The author describes a professional development process that assists teachers in implementing successful instructional strategies by using equity as a framing tool for decision making. Teachers are able to improve the educational outcomes for all students by creating a framework around which to initiate change. Teachers learned to approach change using the following elements: (1) a stance of critique and inquiry; (2) data-driven decision making; (3) investigation of best practices, including instruction, curriculum, and materials; and (4) teacher leadership development. This framework is a means of eliminating the fragmentation that typically accompanies the implementation of reform.

Lewis, A. (1998). Teachers in the driver's seat. The Harvard Educational Letter, 14(2), 1-4.
Read at http://www.edletter.org/past/issues/1998-ma/teacher.shtml

When teachers look at student work together and talk about how it could be better, they become student focused. This author says that three things have facilitated the implementation of this strategy: a political and policy climate that wants proof that students are learning to high standards, reform efforts that encourage teachers to share responsibility for student success, and the emergence of a research base that is giving teachers better clues as to how to move students to higher levels of learning. Looking at student work together has become an effective form of professional development as conversations move from student work to subject areas to teaching and learning.

Nichols, B. & Singer, K. (2000). Developing data mentors. Educational Leadership, 57(5), 34-37.
Order from ASCD's web site: http://www.ascd.org

Beverly Nichols and Kevin Singer share their struggle to gather and analyze student assessment data and to apply this information to the classroom. They discuss the success of two major activities to assist teachers and principals: data notebooks for each school, and a data-mentor program to develop data-analysis skills in school personnel.

Pardini, P. (2000). Data, well done. Journal of Staff Development, 21(1), 12-18.
Read at http://www.nsdc.org/library/publications/jsd/pardini211.cfm

The author provides examples of schools and districts nationwide that use data-based decision making effectively to enhance beginner teacher education, multi-age reading classes, literacy education, tracking of student achievement, ongoing data-driven professional development, and school discipline efforts. The programs share a commitment to putting data at the center of ongoing, collaborative staff development.

Sagor, R. (1992). How to conduct collaborative action research. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Order from ASCD's web site: http://www.ascd.org

The author explains that the isolation of the teacher is the key inhibitor to education improvement and that when teachers are involved in action research, they move out of isolation and into collegial relationships with their fellow teachers. He goes on to say that these new researchers must establish their own focus, but he provides two guiding principles for the work: (1) the phenomena chosen for study must concern the teaching/learning process, and (2) those phenomena must also be within the practitioner's scope of influence.

Schmoker, M. (1996). Results: The key to continuous school improvement. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Order from ASCD's web site: http://www.ascd.org

Mike Schmoker sees tangible, measurable results as the goals to successful school improvement. He explores the conditions under which dramatic results may be achieved and the theory behind them. Creating opportunities for meaningful teamwork, setting clear and measurable goals, and regularly collecting and analyzing data are stressed as the means to improvement. Examples are given to illustrate successful applications by schools from around the country. Schmoker concludes with the note that, "Schools improve when purpose and effort unite. One key is leadership that recognizes its most vital function: to keep everyone's eyes on the prize of improved student learning."

Sparks, D. (1998). Making assessment part of teacher learning. Journal of Staff Development, 19(4), 33-35.
Read at http://www.nsdc.org/library/publications/jsd/joyce194.cfm

Dennis Sparks interviews Bruce Joyce regarding his advocacy for staff development that improves student learning. Joyce discusses the importance of continuous adult learning, studying implementation, assessment as part of instruction, formative evaluation, and some barriers to implementation.

Stiggins, R. (2001). Student-involved classroom assessment (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Order from Prentice Hall's web site: http://www.vig.prenhall.com/catalog/academic/product/1,4096,0130225371,00.html

Richard Stiggins describes how to create high-quality classroom assessments and use them to build student confidence and maximize student achievement. He emphasizes what teachers need to know to manage day-to-day classroom assessment effectively and efficiently and he focuses on student well-being and potential for self-assessment. He offers practical guidelines on how to use various assessment methods and how to match them with achievement targets. He offers time- and energy-saving ideas for teachers and he connects the concepts in the book with traditional notions of validity and reliability.